The Burning of Washington

By Silence Dogood

The War of 1812 marked the first time in history that the United States Congress formally declared war on another nation. Once again, the United States found itself at war with the British Empire, earning the conflict the nickname the “Second War for Independence.” Yet, unlike the Revolutionary War, this conflict was driven by new and pressing issues.

As was often the case before the 20th century, Britain and France were at war, this time in the Napoleonic Wars. While America refrained from choosing sides in the war, it continued to trade with both nations.

The British, as the world’s preeminent naval power, controlled the seas along the European coast. This is where most of the American issues arose. For starters, the British continually seized American ships attempting to trade with the French. Even worse, they developed a habit of impressing American sailors—literally claiming them as their own and forcing them to serve in the Royal Navy.

There were also pressing issues at home. Americans began to view British-controlled Canada as a natural area for expansion, something the British were not inclined to accept. At the same time, as Americans pushed farther west, they repeatedly clashed with Native American tribes. These forces were often well organized and well armed, and many in the United States believed the British were behind this, supplying weapons and encouraging Native resistance to American expansion.

Eventually, enough was enough. In June 1812, President James Madison formally petitioned Congress to declare war on the British Empire. The House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 in favor, with the Senate following suit by a vote of 19 to 13. On June 18, 1812, President Madison signed the first declaration of war in the young nation’s history.

In the early days of the war, prospects did not look particularly rosy for the young, confident United States. The British found success in early land battles, most notably repelling American forces in not one but two attempts to invade Canada, as well as capturing American troops at Fort Detroit in a humiliating defeat.

While the United States struggled on land, it achieved several unexpected victories at sea against the powerful Royal Navy, particularly in the Great Lakes region. These included the USS Constitution’s defeat of HMS Guerriere—earning the ship the nickname “Old Ironsides” after cannonballs appeared to bounce harmlessly off its hull—and Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry’s decisive victory at the Battle of Lake Erie, where he famously reported, “We have met the enemy and they are ours.” This latter battle, in particular, marked a turning point for the Americans.

As time went on, the United States began to see more success on land, especially in the South, where a young general named Andrew Jackson earned several victories, many against the Creek Nation.

Just as things were beginning to shift in favor of the United States, world events tipped the scales back toward Britain.

In 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated the throne for the first time, seemingly bringing an end to the Napoleonic Wars. This freed the British from fighting on two continents and allowed them to focus their full attention on the conflict in North America.

Among their first objectives was the capture of the young nation’s capital: Washington, D.C.

In the summer of 1814, British troops sailed into the Chesapeake Bay under the command of Major General Robert Ross, accompanied by naval forces led by Admiral George Cockburn. They landed in Maryland and began their march toward Washington.

The United States Army at the time was relatively small and, by the summer of 1814, spread thin due to fighting along the Canadian border and in the South. American leaders also did not believe Washington would be a primary target. At the time, the city offered little beyond its role as the seat of the federal government, and there were other cities that seemed far more valuable to a British invasion. While that may have been true on paper, the British were not targeting Washington for its strategic importance—they were aiming to send a message.

What few regular troops and state militias were available made their stand in Bladensburg, Maryland. Given its proximity to Washington, many government officials rode out to observe the battle, including President James Madison and Secretary of State James Monroe.

In what became known as the Battle of Bladensburg, American forces initially put up a defensive stand, but their lines soon broke under the British assault. The resistance quickly collapsed into a full-scale retreat.

The path to the nation’s capital now lay wide open.

When British troops entered Washington, they began systematically targeting government buildings and burning them to the ground. The Treasury Building, the Library of Congress, the War Department, and both houses of Congress in the Capitol were all set ablaze. Finally, they turned their attention to the White House.

At the time, it was known simply as the “President’s House.” President James Madison, having been present at Bladensburg, was unable to return before the British arrived. His wife, Dolley Madison, remained until the last possible moment. Along with several enslaved servants, she refused to leave until important documents and valuables had been secured and sent to safety.

Among the items in danger was a full-length portrait of George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart, which hung in the White House dining room. According to firsthand accounts, Dolley Madison refused to leave without it. The painting was bolted to the wall, and time was running out. Paul Jennings, an enslaved servant of the Madisons, later recalled that the frame was finally broken apart and the canvas removed and rolled up, allowing it to be carried away just moments before British troops arrived and set the building on fire.

That same portrait still hangs in the White House today.

The city burned through the night, but the next day a powerful storm swept through Washington with driving rain. Whether providential or not, the storm helped extinguish many of the fires and limited further destruction. Having delivered their intended blow, the British withdrew shortly thereafter.

The immediate reaction to the attack was, understandably, one of national embarrassment. But, as is often the case in American history, it also served as a catalyst for renewed resolve.

Just a few weeks later, American forces successfully drove the British from Baltimore Harbor. During that battle, with bombs bursting all around him, a young lawyer named Francis Scott Key penned a poem that would later become “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Not long after, Andrew Jackson delivered an unlikely and decisive victory at the Battle of New Orleans.

In December 1814, British and American negotiators signed the Treaty of Ghent, officially ending the war. (News traveled slowly at the time, and the Battle of New Orleans was actually fought after the treaty had already been signed.) On paper, the results were minimal. The treaty restored the “status quo ante bellum,” or, simply, a return to prewar conditions. While that may sound like a hollow outcome, the war had lasting consequences.

For one, the United States, despite moments of humiliation, proved once again that it could stand toe to toe with the world’s preeminent power, Great Britain. The war also fostered a growing sense of national pride and identity. Just as importantly, Britain began to recognize these realities. The United States would no longer be viewed as a rebellious former colony, but as a legitimate and rising power on the world stage, particularly in the Western Hemisphere.

The War of 1812 had its share of setbacks and triumphs, but in the end, it certainly played a meaningful and lasting role in shaping this American experiment.